Richard P Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Richard P - Essay Example 6. This book has lots of details about the remarkable people who were inducted into slavery forcibly but subsequently asserted their independence. 7. Assimilation of the ethnic minority/black race into the American Mainstream society cannot be achieved though legal provisions only. All-round efforts at every level are required. 8. African culture is the intangible heritage of humanity and suitable steps need to be taken to preserve it. 9. The intrinsic value of the traditional/holistic medical practices need to done on scientific basis. 10. The white race should give up the concept that they are the superior race. All men are created equal by god. Order#: 522517 Topic: Richard P What, if any are the lessons to be learned by students of history from Price's book? An anthropologist is a great investigator. Just as a sculptor removes piece by piece from a stone block, to chisel ultimately a perfect statue, an anthropologist scores the achieves, sieves through the records, travels extens ively, drafts questionnaires and gets the answers from the expected and unexpected quarters, and comes to his conclusions. His vision and mission is to find out the truth about the subject of his investigation. The geographical area chosen by Richard Price for his long and arduous task is Saramaka Maroons of Suriname, one of the most difficult places on Planet Earth. He has the harvest of mythologies relating to the tribes inhabiting in this place. His mentor and guide for his four decades of research is Tooy and he has covered three centuries of African exile and resettlement in America. To put the anthropological material in the narrative style is a tough asking. One has to be an anthropologist, historian and a fiction writer all molded into one. Richard Price is one such personality. Social imaginary of African American societies is unique. The common African-American citizen, men, women and children have played a historic role to build this country, without their being aware of it, and without being given any designated role or project. I have no hesitation to conclude that this is no ordinary travelogue in the company of a fellow-traveler Tooy, who is a local man. Price has a passionate commitment to the main subject of his research—Saramak Tribe. He gathers transcripts, writes field notes and presents before the reader, who feels that he is actually travelling with Richards while turning the pages of the book. One comes to know the dominant impact of ethnicity on Nationalism. This book provides great backgrounder information about the difficult process of assimilation of the tribes into the mainstream of American society. One important historical fact that I have learnt from Richard’s researched findings is the incredible role played by the rebel slaves. Though brought for slave labor against their will and with brutal force, some brave amongst them (tribal leaders?) had the guts and foresight to establish their own colony in the depths of the forests and they protected their culture, nurtured it, transmitted to the future generations and stood by their traditions. Perhaps African traditional divine powers wished to make the history of the region available to humankind which Richard tackled during the course of his adventurous research. His finding Tooy, a priest, philosopher and healer, I consider, is one such divine intervention. He must have facilitated Richard’

Types of Parasites

Types of Parasites Chapter 1 General Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Fish Parasites Parasitism is an obligatory association between two distinct species, in which one species parasite is dependent on its host for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The parasites can be divided into two groups which are ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces of the host such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites usually hide within the internal tissues or organs in the host (Cheng, 1986). Fishes acts as hosts to a wide variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). Parasites are typically smaller than their host. A distinct host usually found to be infected by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998). The chemical and physical factors which are either in micro-environment or macro-environment play an important role to determine the distribution and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among different age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or according to host density and behaviour (Cheng, 1986). Remarkably, parasites have a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic movement and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and starting their parasitism phase. Apart from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, causing immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause death (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic body system problems to the host. Moreover, the irritation site will initiate secondary infection by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986). 1.2 Specific parasite Gobies play a role as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans have been described as parasites of fish (Lim, 1987). They are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually. Some species of parasites have specific attachment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but most live as parasitic species on or in other organisms. There are 3 main classes under this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002). Monogeneans are typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the body surface or invade into the inner organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans have a series of hooks that enable them to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and feed on skin mucosa (Lim, 1987). Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of freshwater fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, while Gyrodactylus is typically found on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be described as viviparous during its whole life. Digenea was formerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening mouth with a sucker which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an oral sucker (Yamagutti, 1958). They are particularly found as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are sometimes found throughout the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yamagutti, 1958). The adult digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but reproduction still requires two worms. Digeneans have a complex life cycle with two to three intermediate hosts (Cheng, 1986). Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly known as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002); and a strobila which is a linear series that be formed by one or more segments (also described as proglottides) which contain reproductive structures (Yamagutti, 1959). Most of the cestodes are monoecious and each proglottid has a male reproductive system and a female reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take place in cestode (Smyth, 1962). Nematode is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, mouth, alimentary system, body cavity and the other parts (Smyth, 1962). This species can also be found as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural pest (Campbell, 2002). It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and cuticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The female is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles differ depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962). 1.3 The Family of Gobiidae The members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two hundred genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an adhesive disc (Maurice Anthony, 1993). This species usually inhabits the shore in shallow bays and estuaries and also freshwater swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restricted to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989). 1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers) The mudskippers are known as ‘ikan belacak, ‘ikan tembakul or ‘ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudskipper species based on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989). Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). There are thirty four species from ten genera found throughout the world (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were found along the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004). According to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identified five species of mudskippers while Koumans (1953) had noted eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, there were four species already reported by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had studied 12 species of mudskippers (refer to Appendix A5). The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and united pelvic fins. They also have a pair of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teeth in the upper jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above water and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993). There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully out of the water. Their bronchial chamber can fill up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are abundant in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud towers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993). The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential rain in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in China, Taiwan, India and some parts of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also used as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993) 1.4.1 World Distribution of Mudskippers Mudskippers can be found around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from Indonesia to Borneo (see 3). A few species are also found in Africa and Australia, whereas none are found in the new world (refer to Appendix A1). 1.5 Literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7) There is too few research on parasitological studies of mudskipper in the Asian region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004); taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989); and the nitrogen excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993). Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new record showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005). Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infected Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be infected by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode was also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not establish any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also noted by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was detected in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri. Eighteen Gyrodactylus species were collected from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discussed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the North Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea was found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998) Longshaw et al. (2003) discovered that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by OndraÄ kovà ¡ et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been newly recorded as being a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp. Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle concavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphalloà ¯des cÅ“lomicola has a bad impact on Pomatoschistus microps (Krà ¸yer, 1838). Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had different abundance according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002). Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 collected round gobies parasitized by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 gobies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode. Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans. Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metacecaria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, mean intensity and mean abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999). 1.6 Objectives of Study This is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general survey of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an observation on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast. Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.0 Introduction The present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of mudskippers were collected and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus. Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identified and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of Dispersion, the Chi Square Test and population parameters were used to analyze data. 2.1 Methodology i) Fish collection site The fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the lowest level while the high tide had the highest point when compared to the normal time. The salinity and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the cast net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to attract fishes. The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aquarium to make sure that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was done using a taxonomic characteristic key. 2.2 Fish Dissection Each fish was killed by a blow on their head or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were placed in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater possibly contained the protozoans, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) Gill removal The operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were separated one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gills were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipette was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to scrape the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removal The alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut longitudinally from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could possibly gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996) 2.3 Parasite collection Scalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity block filled with some drops of seawater. Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites. i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasite A coverslip was placed over the parasite after it was placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen. After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a clear nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to prevent any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to the sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens. ii) Preservation methods for different types of parasite There were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and quantity of the collected parasites (see Table 1) Table 1: Preparation methods for different types of parasite Parasite Preparation methods Nematode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage Trematode Digenea Warm 10% formalin was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for storage Cestode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage 2.4 Data analysis Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was calculated to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is calculated by dividing the variance over the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is randomly dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated formula is as below: The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for significant differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented. Chi Square Test The Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square value was calculated as follow: Where as: = The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column number = The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number = It is run over all cells r = The number of rows in Chi-square table k = The number of columns in Chi-square table The calculated value was tested at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one, the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05. Population Parameter The basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to Cox (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as below: Prevalence is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population. Prevalence = Number of infected host X 100% Number of host examined Intensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host samples (mudskippers). Intensity = Total number of parasites Total number of infected host Abundance is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts. Abundance = Intensity Total number of host examined Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 3.0 Introduction This study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (refer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were identified by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3). In this study, parasites of the gills, the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and salinity of water) also were discussed (see Table 2; Appendix A2). 3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) Table 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites. Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see Table 3; 5-11). Identification is not easily to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see section 1.2; 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2; 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2; 10), and unidentified parasite cysts (see 11). Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans. Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyrodactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers. In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3; 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in the gills are considered as myxosporid. Table 2 Excel Table 3: Parasite record of the examined fish Parasite species Number of Species Microhabitat i) Digenea (see 5-8) 3 Gut and gill ii) Monogenea (see 9) 1 Gill iii) Cestode (see 10) 1 Gut iv) Nematode 1 Gut v)Unidentified parasite cysts 3.2 Parasites and their hosts Table 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus. Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is possibly because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos. Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers. There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. . Table 4: Parasites from Different Mudskippers Species Parasite Species Boleophthalmus boddarti Periophthalmus modestus Periophthalmus novemradiatus Host Species Periophthalmus chrysospilos Periophthalmodon schlosseri Pseudapocryptes Lanceolatus Scartelaos hisphorous Monogenea + Digenea + + Cestode + + Nematode + + + Unknown parasite cysts + + + = Parasite detected; = Parasite not detected Table 5: The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community Present in the Different Mudskipper Species Host Species Parasites Digenea Monogenea Nematode Cestode Unidentified cysts Boleophthalmus boddarti 0 0 0 0 395 Periophthalmus chrysospilos 136 0 0 1 0 Periophthalmus novemradiatus 10 0 7 28 6 Periophthalmus modestus 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus 0 8 0 0 0 Periophthalmodon schlosseri 0 0 25 4 0 Scartelaos histophorus 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 Parasite and their habitat The salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Sementa 2 with salinity reading from 23†° to 25†° and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may perhaps vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7; 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35. Cestode and nematode occurred individually in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nematodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7; 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment. Table 6: The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor Coast Locations Total of Samples pH water(†°) Salinity Parasitic infections Infection Rate Jeram 5 N.A N.A 2 40% Carey Island 1 5 7.44 11 3 60% Carey Island 2 36 5.71 17 14 39% Carey Island 3 3 8.17 11 2 67% Sementa1 20 6.81 28 5 25% Sementa2 40 7.35-7.58 23-25 29 73% Morib 18 7.21 25-30 1 6% 2 Table 7 : Parasites in different pH range. pH of water Parasite 5.71 6.81 7.21 7.35 7.44 7.58 8.17 Digenea 10 0 1 135 0 0 1 Cestode Types of Parasites Types of Parasites Chapter 1 General Introduction 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Fish Parasites Parasitism is an obligatory association between two distinct species, in which one species parasite is dependent on its host for nutrients and shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The parasites can be divided into two groups which are ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites are found on the external surfaces of the host such as skin, fins and gills, while endoparasites usually hide within the internal tissues or organs in the host (Cheng, 1986). Fishes acts as hosts to a wide variety of parasites such as the protozoans, platyhelminthes, acanthocephalan, nematodes and crustaceans (Lim, 1987). Parasites are typically smaller than their host. A distinct host usually found to be infected by a group of parasites (Zander, 1998). The chemical and physical factors which are either in micro-environment or macro-environment play an important role to determine the distribution and density of parasites (Cheng, 1986). Parasites show a preference among different age groups (Zander et al., 1993), sex of host (Lim, 1987) or according to host density and behaviour (Cheng, 1986). Remarkably, parasites have a distinguished ability to deal with the normal physiological and structural changes of the host, for example, the peristaltic movement and intestinal mucosa (Cheng, 1986) for survival, and starting their parasitism phase. Apart from that, the presence of parasites commonly irritates the host, causing immunological change (Lim, 1979) and may eventually cause death (Zander, 1998). Parasites penetrate the hosts tissue, causing chronic body system problems to the host. Moreover, the irritation site will initiate secondary infection by micro-organisms to the host (Cheng, 1986). 1.2 Specific parasite Gobies play a role as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Varieties of protozoan, helminthes, mollusks, crustaceans have been described as parasites of fish (Lim, 1987). They are able to reproduce either sexually or asexually. Some species of parasites have specific attachment to enable them to hold onto the host for food, transport (Cheng, 1986) or shelter (Elmer Glenn, 1961). The phylum Platyhelminthes consists of a large group of free-living invertebrates but most live as parasitic species on or in other organisms. There are 3 main classes under this phylum, namely, class Monogenea, class Trematode, and class Cestoda (Solomon et al., 2002). Monogeneans are typical gillworms (Bunkley-Williams E. H. Williams, 1994). Some species attach themselves on the body surface or invade into the inner organ of aquatic species (Reed, Francis-Floyd Klinger, 1996). Monogeneans have a series of hooks that enable them to attach on the host (Reed et al., 1996). They usually inhabit the gill and feed on skin mucosa (Lim, 1987). Reed et al. (1996) mentioned that a monogenean, Dactylogyrus sp., usually attaches itself to the gills of freshwater fish. It reproduces by laying eggs, while Gyrodactylus is typically found on the skin and fins of fish. This parasite produces live young or can be described as viviparous during its whole life. Digenea was formerly described as digenetic trematodes and this species of flukes usually has at least two hosts in their life cycle (Smyth, 1962). The parasite usually has a terminal opening mouth with a sucker which is subterminal or ventral. It may or may not have an oral sucker (Yamagutti, 1958). They are particularly found as endoparasites in the digestive tract, but are sometimes found throughout the inner organ systems of vertebrates (Yamagutti, 1958). The adult digeneans are commonly hermaphroditic but reproduction still requires two worms. Digeneans have a complex life cycle with two to three intermediate hosts (Cheng, 1986). Cestode is a parasitic flatworm or commonly known as tapeworm (Solomon, et al., 2002). An adult worm consists of a scolex which maybe armed with suckers and sometimes hooks for attachment on host (Solomon et al., 2002); and a strobila which is a linear series that be formed by one or more segments (also described as proglottides) which contain reproductive structures (Yamagutti, 1959). Most of the cestodes are monoecious and each proglottid has a male reproductive system and a female reproductive system. Both self and cross-fertilization will take place in cestode (Smyth, 1962). Nematode is commonly called as round worm (Solomon et al., 2002) that can infect a vertebrates eye, mouth, alimentary system, body cavity and the other parts (Smyth, 1962). This species can also be found as a parasite of many species of fishes. Some species parasitize plants and are described as an important agricultural pest (Campbell, 2002). It is smooth and consists of a cylindrical body, a pointed tail and cuticle layer surrounding its body (Solomon et al., 2002). Nematodes are typically dioecious. The female is generally larger than the male (Cheng, 1986). Apart from that, nematode life cycles differ depending on the species of the nematode (Smyth, 1962). 1.3 The Family of Gobiidae The members which form the family Gobiidae are known as gobies. It is the largest family of marine fishes and consists of two hundred genera (retrieved from Wikipedia). The members of the Family Gobiidae have their own special characteristics. They have a cylindrical body and the pelvic fins usually form an adhesive disc (Maurice Anthony, 1993). This species usually inhabits the shore in shallow bays and estuaries and also freshwater swamps and lakes (retrieved from Wikipedia). Some species are restricted to coral reefs, rocky coast, sandy, mangrove swamp or muddy beaches (Murdy, 1989). 1.4 Oxudercine Gobies (Mudskippers) The mudskippers are known as ‘ikan belacak, ‘ikan tembakul or ‘ikan belukor in Malay. The members of the goby family classified as mudskipper species based on body traits and behaviours (Murdy, 1989). Oxudercine gobies are described as the members of mudskippers (Murdy, 1989). There are thirty four species from ten genera found throughout the world (Murdy, 1989). They are Apocryptes, Zappa, Pseudapocryptes, Apocryptodon, Parapocryptes, Oxuderces, Scartelaos, Boleophthalmus, Periophthalmodon and Periophthalmus. Only seven genera of mudskippers (Periopthalmodon, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, Scartelaos, Oxuderces, Parapocryptes and Pseudopocryptes) were found along the Selangor coast (Khaironizam, 2004). According to Khaironizam (2004), Cantor (1849) had identified five species of mudskippers while Koumans (1953) had noted eight species in Malaysia. Apart from that, there were four species already reported by Macne (1968) and five species were described by Berry (1972). He also mentioned that Murdy (1989) stated 11 species of mudskippers in Malaysia while Takita (1999) had studied 12 species of mudskippers (refer to Appendix A5). The mudskippers are euryhaline and semi-terrestrial species (Clayton, 1993). They have a rounded body and united pelvic fins. They also have a pair of protruding eyes and one to two rows of teeth in the upper jaws. Besides this, they can survive for a long time above water and move on land. Commonly, the males are smaller than the females. The mudskippers usually feed on crabs, insects, and other small organisms (Clayton, 1993). There are several adaptations that allow the mudskippers to survive successfully out of the water. Their bronchial chamber can fill up with water which allows them to walk on land for up to several hours. They spend much of their lives out of water and are able to undergo osmoregulation as well as oxygen uptake via their skin and gills (Clayton, 1993). They are abundant in muddy areas or mangroves. Oxudercine gobies often build mud towers around their burrows as refuge from predators (Clayton, 1993). The mudskippers have certain economic importance which provide substituted fishery for the period of torrential rain in some coastal countries. These fishes are commonly eaten in China, Taiwan, India and some parts of Malaysia. Nowadays, the mudskippers are also used as feed for aquarium fish (Clayton, 1993) 1.4.1 World Distribution of Mudskippers Mudskippers can be found around the tropical world as well as in the coastal regions of Asia, from Indonesia to Borneo (see 3). A few species are also found in Africa and Australia, whereas none are found in the new world (refer to Appendix A1). 1.5 Literature Reviews on Gobiid Parasites (refer to Appendix A7) There is too few research on parasitological studies of mudskipper in the Asian region. Most of the studies nowadays concentrate on the behavior and ecology of oxudercinae gobies (Khaironizam, 2004); taxonomic and cladistic of the oxudercine gobies (Murdy, 1989); and the nitrogen excretion of mudskipper in water and on land, the growth of mudskipper, habitat of mudskipper and osmoregulation system among this species (Clayton, 1993). Mhaisen and Al-Maliki (1996) mentioned that Myxobolus pfeifferi (Sporozoa), Diplozoon sp. (Monogenea) and Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) were found in dark-blotched mudskippers, Periophthalmus waltoni, from the mudflats of the Khor Al-Zubair estuary. A new record showed the heterophyid (trematode) had served Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Scartelaos sp. as second intermediate host (Sohn et al., 2005). Clayton (1993) indicated that cestode, agamofilarial and acanthocephalid cysts have been described as parasite in Periophthalmus koelreuteri (Pearse, 1933), Periphthalmodon schlosseri and Boleophthalmus boddarti (Khoo, 1966). Besides, the larval ascarid nematodes infected Periophthalmodon schlosseri (Khoo, 1966). Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus were found to be infected by parasitic copepod, Gnathia sp. A larval cestode was also described by Pearse (1932) in Periophthalmus modestus. A study by Choudhury and Nandi (1973) did not establish any parasitic infection on Boleophthalmus boddarti and Scartelaos histophorus. The intestinal flagellates were also noted by Pearse (1933) in Boleophthamus boddarti. The bacterial flora had been observed by Morii and Kasama (1989) to be in the intestine of Boleophthalmus pectinirostris and Periophthalmus modestus. In West Africa and Singapore, a new species of acanthocephalan was detected in Periophthalmus barbarus and Periophthalmus schlosseri. Eighteen Gyrodactylus species were collected from gobies of the genus Pomatoschistus and the host-parasite relationship was discussed (Huyse et al., 2003). Geets et al. (1999) found that three gobies (Pomatoschistus minutus, P. lozanoi and P. pictus) were infected by Gyrodactylus arcuatus in the North Sea and noted that Gyrodactylus longidactylus n. sp. is host specific (Geets et al., 1998). This study showed that monogenea was found in Pomatoschistus lozanoi from the North Sea (Geets et al., 1998) Longshaw et al. (2003) discovered that Gyrodactylus quadratidigitus n. sp. (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae) was found on the on the gills and body surface of Thorogobius ephippiatus (Lowe). Neogobius fluviatilis, Neogobius kessleri and Neogobius melanostomus from Slovakia were investigated by OndraÄ kovà ¡ et al. (2003) and were found to be infected by a metazoan parasite.According to Garcia et al. (2004), Lepidogobius lepidus that has been newly recorded as being a host to thirty three cestode pleroceroides of Phyllobothrium sp. Digenea (Aphalloides timmi, Apatemon gracilis, Podocotyle atomon, Cryptocotyle concavum, Cryptocotyle lingua) and nematode (Hysterothylacium sp.) are found to be present externally and internally in Pomatoschistus minutus, P. pictus, P.microps, Gobiusculus flavescens and Gobius niger (Zander, 2004). Pampoulie et al. (1999) noted that infection of Aphalloà ¯des cÅ“lomicola has a bad impact on Pomatoschistus microps (Krà ¸yer, 1838). Gobies were described as main host and transmitters (Zander, 1993) of parasites. Zander (1998) noted that goby fishes serve the digenean, cestode, nematode and acanthoceplalan serve the goby fishes as their intermediate host. Pomatoschistus microps is the final host of Podocotyle atomon and Aphalloides timmi and these parasites had different abundance according to different seasons (Zander et al., 2002). Malek (2001) mentioned that Labratrema minimus and Cryptocotyle concavum have infected gobies (Pomatoschistus microps and Pomatoschistus minutes). According to Charlebois et al. (1997), there were 144 collected round gobies parasitized by 7 species of parasites. They are Diplostomum sp.(digenean), Eustrongylides tubifex(nematode), Rhabdochona decaturensis, Spinitectus sp., Spiroxys sp.(nematode), Leptorhyncchoides thecatus (class Palaeacanthocephala) and glochidia (larvae of freshwater bivalves). Apart from that, another study showed that four of the 67 gobies had parasites and three of them were infected by Acanthocephalus dirus while the latter was infected by nematode. Parasite infection of the male gobies was higher than female (Appleby, 1996). Most of the parasites were found from the gills, oral cavity and pharynx of gobies. Marianne et al. (2004) mentioned that Ellipsomyxa gobii (Myxozoa) infected goby, Pomatoschistus microps, as fish host. According to Lynda et al. (2004), there were four species of freshwater parasites were found in round goby, Neogobius melanostomus. These parasites included trematodes and crustaceans. Schistocephalus solidus, Aphalloides timmi and Apatemon gracilis including a metacecaria had been found in the goby fishes (Zander, 2001). These gobies have a low richness, prevelance, mean intensity and mean abundance of parasite. The gobies are intermediate host of digenean which is Diplostomum sp., acanthocephala (Acanthocephalus dirus) and nematode, Eustrongylides sp. (Camp et al., 1999). 1.6 Objectives of Study This is a general study on the parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along the Selangor coastal area. The study is divided into two parts with the first part being a general survey of parasites on mudskippers while the second part discuss the relative factors affecting distribution of parasites. It also had an observation on the occurrences mudskippers along Selangor coast. Chapter 2 Materials and Methods 2.0 Introduction The present study focuses on the mudskippers found along the coastal area of Selangor. The fishes were caught from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib. A total of 127 specimens belonging to 7 species of mudskippers were collected and they included Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus, Periophthalmus modestus, Periophthalmodon schlosseri, Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and Scartelaos histophorus. Fish parts including the body surface, gills and gut were observed. The weight and the size of each specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. Apart from that, the diet of mudskippers also was documented according to their stomach contents. Next, the parasites found from different parts of fish specimens were identified and tabulated. ANOVA, Coefficient of Dispersion, the Chi Square Test and population parameters were used to analyze data. 2.1 Methodology i) Fish collection site The fish specimens were caught by having the sampling at Jeram, Sementa, Carey Island and Morib (see 4). The field works were carried out during spring tide because the low tide was the lowest level while the high tide had the highest point when compared to the normal time. The salinity and pH of water were recorded. Fishes were caught by using different sizes of scoop net (medium or small). Otherwise, the fish can be caught using the cast net or by angling. Some crustaceans or small fishes were used as bait to attract fishes. The mudskippers were kept in water-filled aquarium to make sure that they may survive longer. (If the fishes die during sampling, some ice cubes can be added into plastic bag to freeze the dead fish). Species identification was done using a taxonomic characteristic key. 2.2 Fish Dissection Each fish was killed by a blow on their head or by severing the nerve cord. The weight and the size of specimen (standard size and the length) were recorded. After that, the gill and alimentary system of the fish were taken out step by step for observations. The parts examined were placed in a petri dish (with some drops of seawater in it. The seawater possibly contained the protozoans, copepods, mud, sea grasses and the others) Gill removal The operculum (a bony plate) was lifted and the gill parts were examined. Next, the operculum was cut across its base and the gill was being exposed. The gills were removed by cutting the upper and lower attachments of the arch. The gill apparatus were separated one by one into 8 pieces and the isolated gills were placed into a petri dish partially-filled with water. A pipette was used to suck and separate the parasite from the mucus, blood blot or tissues. A needle or a pair of fine forceps was usually used to scrape the mucus or tissue so as to separate the parasites from mucus or tissue. Alimentary system or gut part removal The alimentary system is a canal which starts from the esophagus and ends below the rectum. The body of the fish was cut longitudinally from the operculum parts till the tail part of the fish. After getting out the gill apparatus, it was lifted out together with the alimentary system by using a pair of forceps. The alimentary tract was cut into 4 parts (stomach, small intestine, big intestine and rectum). Again, a needle or forceps was used to scrape the mucus or tissue to separate the parasites from the mucus or tissue. The food items from the stomach content of the fish were recorded because this could possibly gives us some informations on the life cycle of parasite (Mhaisen and Al-Maliki, 1996) 2.3 Parasite collection Scalpel or dissecting needles were used to scrape gently the gill filaments and gut dermis of the fish. The parasite were sucked out by using a small pipette (if they were too small) or a pair of forceps (if they were bigger) and placed into a cavity block filled with some drops of seawater. Then, the parasite was examined under a dissecting microscope. The parasite was preserved using different methods according to the species of parasites. i) Fixation of the monogenean or any unknown species of parasite A coverslip was placed over the parasite after it was placed at the centre part of a slide. The slide-fixed parasite would be examined with a dissecting microscope to make sure the slide contained the specimen. After leaving the slide to be dry for a few minutes, a clear nail varnish was used to fix the four edges of the coverslip on the slide to prevent any movement of the coverslip. Ammonium picrate glycerin was added to the sides of the coverslip to allow it to seep under the coverslip, to fix and to clear the specimens. ii) Preservation methods for different types of parasite There were different parasite preservation methods used depending on the species and quantity of the collected parasites (see Table 1) Table 1: Preparation methods for different types of parasite Parasite Preparation methods Nematode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later the specimens were transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage Trematode Digenea Warm 10% formalin was poured over the worms and the specimens were kept overnight in the fixative. They were transferred into fresh 70% alcohol for storage Cestode Warm 70% alcohol was poured over the worms and later transferred to fresh 70% alcohol for storage 2.4 Data analysis Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) The coefficient of dispersion (C.D) was calculated to see how the population is dispersed, such as random, uniformed or clumped. It is calculated by dividing the variance over the mean and the relative relationship between mean and variance would establish the distribution pattern of the parasites in a population. If the C.D is close to or equals to one, the population is randomly dispersed. If the C.D is more than one, the population is clumped or over-dispersed. If the C.D is less than one, it shows that the population is uniformly dispersed or under-dispersed. The ratio of the mean to the variance is called the Coefficient of Dispersion (C.D) and the calculated formula is as below: The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) (refer to Appendix A4) was used to test for significant differences among the variances. In this study, ANOVA was used to test for significant differences among the variances of parasites in the mudskippers sampled around the Selangor coastal area. In addition, the relative test had exhibited the interaction among the different factors affecting the occurrences and quantity of parasites. A test was calculated to show the correlation between the interaction of the different independent variables and the quantity of parasites on the gills and gut of the mudskipper. The significant result for fish survival in relation to the quantity of different parasite species under different variables was also documented. Chi Square Test The Chi Square Test was done to test whether a sample from a population follows a specified distribution or not. The Chi Square value was calculated as follow: Where as: = The observed number of cases which be written off as i row number of j column number = The expected number of cases which under the H0 to be characterized with i row number of j column number = It is run over all cells r = The number of rows in Chi-square table k = The number of columns in Chi-square table The calculated value was tested at a significance level of 95%. The value was yielded by the formula which was approximated by distribution with (r-1) (c-1). If the calculated value exceeded the tabulated one, the null hypothesis would be rejected at p = 0.05. Population Parameter The basic parasitological parameters which are prevalence, abundance and intensity were calculated for each parasite. According to Cox (1982), prevalence is defined by the percentage of host. Formula calculation of each basic parasitological parameter is as below: Prevalence is to look at how common a host (mudskipper) is infected in a population. Prevalence = Number of infected host X 100% Number of host examined Intensity is the quantity of parasite found in the host samples (mudskippers). Intensity = Total number of parasites Total number of infected host Abundance is the total number of parasites found in all the examined hosts. Abundance = Intensity Total number of host examined Chapter 3 Results and Discussions 3.0 Introduction This study focuses on parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) along Selangor coast. The fishes were caught (see Chapter 2) from Jeram, Sementa (2 sites), Carey Island (3 sites) and Morib (refer to 4). There were totally 127 mudskippers caught for study. The collected fish were identified by using taxonomic keys and cladistic analysis of family Gobiidae. 127 mudskippers consist of 7 species from 5 genera were collected. They were 27 Boleophthalmus boddarti, 36 Periophthalmus chrysospilos, 54 Periophthalmus novemradiatus, 1 Periophthalmus modestus, 1 Periophthalmodon schlosseri, 7 Pseudapocryptes elongates (Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus) and 1 Scartelaos histophorus (refer Appendix A3). In this study, parasites of the gills, the gut and the body surface of fish were investigated (see Chapter 2). There was found nothing from the body surface of fish. Five groups of parasites found from the whole study. They were monogenean, digenean, nematode, cestode and some unknown parasite cysts. Apart from that, the environmental factors (pH and salinity of water) also were discussed (see Table 2; Appendix A2). 3.1 Parasites of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) Table 2 showed the summarized parasite data of oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) (refer to Appendix A2). Parasites species differ among oxudercine gobies (mudskippers) based on studied sites. Five groups of parasites were detected from this present study (see Table 3; 5-11). Identification is not easily to be done based on general main beliefs about parasite. There are varies in morphology and biological characters among parasites (see Satyu Yamaguti, 1953). The collected parasite consists of digeneans (see section 1.2; 5-8), monogenean (see section 1.2; 9), nematode (see section 1.2), cestode (see section 1.2; 10), and unidentified parasite cysts (see 11). Digeneans inhabit the gills and the gut of mudskippers (see Table 3). In this study, three types of digeneans were found in the gut of mudskippers. However, two of these three types of digeneans were also found in the gills. These digeneans are probably regurgitated from the gut as they have the same morphology with the guts digeneans. Gyrodactylus sp. (Monogenea, Gyrodactylidae) was described from the gills of mudskippers (see 8). The gills are the preferred part for monogenean. Table 3 showed that cestode and nematode inhabit the gut of fish specimens. Most of them found as encysted form in the mudskippers. In this study, the unidentified parasites cysts were found in the gills and gut of the mudskippers (see Table 3; 11). The unidentified parasites found in the gut of the mudskippers are probably cysts of cestode or nematode. However, some unknown parasites cysts which were found in the gills are considered as myxosporid. Table 2 Excel Table 3: Parasite record of the examined fish Parasite species Number of Species Microhabitat i) Digenea (see 5-8) 3 Gut and gill ii) Monogenea (see 9) 1 Gill iii) Cestode (see 10) 1 Gut iv) Nematode 1 Gut v)Unidentified parasite cysts 3.2 Parasites and their hosts Table 4 showed the presences of parasites on oxudercine gobies (mudskippers). Eight monogeneans were found limited to Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Monogenean seems to be host specific and it prefers to inhabit the gills of Pseudapocryptes lanceolatus. Next, digeneans occurred in Periophthalmus chrysospilos and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see table 4). There were 136 digeneans found in Periophthalmus chrysospilos while ten digeneans were detected from Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). It is possibly because digeneans are able to adapt well in Periophthalmus chrysospilos. Periophthalmus chrysospilos, Periophthalmus novemradiatus and Periophthalmodon schlosseri were infected by cestodes (see Table 4). Most (twenty eight cestodes) were found in Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 5). According to Table 5, there were twenty five nematodes found from Periophthalmus novemradiatus. Nematodes also occurred in Periophthalmodon schlosseri, mostly in the encysted form in the gut of mudskippers. There were 402 unidentified parasite cysts (see section 3.1) observed in Boleophthalmus boddarti, Periophthalmus modestus and Periophthalmus novemradiatus (see Table 4 Table 5). Most were found in Boleophthalmus boddarti. . Table 4: Parasites from Different Mudskippers Species Parasite Species Boleophthalmus boddarti Periophthalmus modestus Periophthalmus novemradiatus Host Species Periophthalmus chrysospilos Periophthalmodon schlosseri Pseudapocryptes Lanceolatus Scartelaos hisphorous Monogenea + Digenea + + Cestode + + Nematode + + + Unknown parasite cysts + + + = Parasite detected; = Parasite not detected Table 5: The Quantity of Compound Parasite Community Present in the Different Mudskipper Species Host Species Parasites Digenea Monogenea Nematode Cestode Unidentified cysts Boleophthalmus boddarti 0 0 0 0 395 Periophthalmus chrysospilos 136 0 0 1 0 Periophthalmus novemradiatus 10 0 7 28 6 Periophthalmus modestus 0 0 0 0 1 Pseudopocryptes lanceolatus 0 8 0 0 0 Periophthalmodon schlosseri 0 0 25 4 0 Scartelaos histophorus 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 Parasite and their habitat The salinity and pH of the water from the specimen collection areas were recorded (see table 2). Table 6 showed that site Sementa 2 with salinity reading from 23†° to 25†° and pH of water between 7.35 and 7.58 had the highest parasitic infection rate. There were 29 out of 40 samples found to have parasitic infection. Morib recorded the lowest parasitic infection rate (6%), only one out of 18 mudskippers was infected with parasite cysts. The parasitic infection rate of the mudskippers may perhaps vary with a distinct study area. The abundance of parasite was probably affected by the salinity of the macro-habitat (Zander Reimer, 2002). Monogenean prefers to inhabit in water with pH 7.44 (see Table 7; 13). Digeneans can be found in water with pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). Most digeneans were found in water with pH 7.35. Cestode and nematode occurred individually in the inner body of the host. Cestodes were found from the site Carey Island 2, site Sementa 2 and Morib (see Table 2). Table 7 showed that twenty-eight cestodes were found from site Carey Island 2 (see Table 2) with water pH measured as 5.71. Nematodes could be found in water with a wide range of pH ranging from 5.71 to 8.71 (Table 7). With reference to Table 7, the unidentified parasite cysts were found more abundantly in water pH 7.35 (Table 7; 14). The abundance of parasites in a distinct area differs with pH of water based on their own optimum pH and tolerance to the environment. Table 6: The Parasitic Infection of Mudskipper in Different Locations along Selangor Coast Locations Total of Samples pH water(†°) Salinity Parasitic infections Infection Rate Jeram 5 N.A N.A 2 40% Carey Island 1 5 7.44 11 3 60% Carey Island 2 36 5.71 17 14 39% Carey Island 3 3 8.17 11 2 67% Sementa1 20 6.81 28 5 25% Sementa2 40 7.35-7.58 23-25 29 73% Morib 18 7.21 25-30 1 6% 2 Table 7 : Parasites in different pH range. pH of water Parasite 5.71 6.81 7.21 7.35 7.44 7.58 8.17 Digenea 10 0 1 135 0 0 1 Cestode

Autobiographical Comparison :: James Baldwin Philosophy Essays

Autobiographical Comparison While reading through James Baldwin's Autobiographical Notes, I was struck with a sudden flash of inspiration. I already knew that I enjoyed Baldwin's works more than any others we have read in class so far: Rodriguez's writing I found to be dull and victimized; Jacobs's was precisely an explanation of how bad slaves lives were and nothing more; and although Virginia Woolf's writings were not painful to read the overall style left me feeling dreamy and disconcerted (after a while all those semicolons got to me). Baldwin's writing had not only content, but a reflection upon it that I found interesting to read. He offered a fresh perspective, analyzing the social history of America and its causes. It is very interesting to read the sections discussing the concept of fighting poison by using poison, and the section discussing the choice of amputation or gangrene. Rather than throw up his hands in despair and say, "Life's not fair that I must choose between amputation and gangrene," he analyzes the benefits and trade-offs. All this I knew before reading his Autobiographical Notes, but while I read them I was suddenly struck with a very powerful revelation. I realized that I liked his writings because I found in him the same philosophy I have adopted. I immediately wondered if there was a connection between our philosophies and the fact that we were both minorities. I'm curious as to how much of the similarities in our philosophies can be attributed to being minorities, and how many differences can be explained by the fact that we are from two different minorities and those that can be explained by the fact that he wrote and lived generations removed from myself. There are three main similarities between our philosophies that I would like to discuss, although the three are likely closely related. The first is that even bad situations contain their associated good. Baldwin writes that the things which hurt and the things which help cannot be divorced from each other. I am not sure how widely spread this idea is, but I certainly believe it. Since around the time I was in 3rd grade, I have believed that good can not exist without bad. Furthermore, I believe that the sum of one's life that he considers good and that which he considers bad will in the end come out equal.

Positive Effects of Video Game in Learning Process and Real Life

Video game has many positive effects in student’s learning process and it also has benefits in real life. First, when you play a video game, it makes you think and increase your logic. There are many games that have strategic and puzzles genre, which is want us to think to solve the problem in the game, it needs accurate of our mind in order to not lose. It will benefit in real life of students or children if they are faced by a problem, they will use their logic and mind more, and be forced to solve their problem themselves, instead of crying to parents and other people for helps.Second, there are many games which increase your eyes speed and accurate to take a decision in fixed time. Game’s genre like races and other speed game which race with time are used for this. Children who are habitual with those games will also habitual to solve a problem with fixed time and they are habitual under the pressure without being stressed. Game also can increase concentrating of mi nd and sometimes increase our languages vocabularies. There are many games that have word puzzle genre which is benefit to increase our vocabularies, especially if the game has English language.And game that has hidden object genre can be used for increase concentrating of mind. It can be benefits for children or students to concentrate on their lesson like math, and can get new vocabularies in English or any other language lessons. Learning process which is implemented with video games or any other games is usually beloved by children or students. So, I think video games or any other games is not always has bad effects for students. They also have many benefits for children and students in real life.

Sea Imagery in Charles Dickens’s a Tale of Two Cities

Gft. World Lit. -4 22 April 2012 Sea Imagery in Charles Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities In Charles Dickens’s Book A Tale of Two Cities, he illustrates the French Revolution and its effect on the people. Through the stories of revolutionaries, upper-class, and lower-class citizens he creates a dichotomy between Paris, France, and London, England, to caution England about what will happen if their government continues to run as France’s does. Dickens uses imagery of the sea to warn that a hellacious government leads to an equally hellacious revolt. The focus of Dickens’s book centers on the hellacious government that rules France.Aristocracy and upper-class society work the puppet of the country’s government. Cover to cover, â€Å"The novel actually begins and ends with a description of the nobility’s abuses of the poor. † (Gonzalez-Posse 347). The book’s first words form a dichotomy between the lives of each class. Then in the fin al lines, Sydney Carton remarks on his sacrifice as he awaits the guillotine pressed on him by the wrath of the government. In the book, Darnay battles with his uncle, Monsieur de Marquis, about the unfair treatment from the aristocracy and that because of it â€Å"France in all such things is changed for the worse† (Dickens 127).Darnay’s concern about the manipulation and use of lower classes to socially raise people, like his uncle, heightens as they discuss the treatment, lack of acknowledgment, and to admit their neglect. Dickens uses this to prove the government’s dreadfulness. Most any peasant before 1775 experienced hardships, but without attention it worsens. Government has no disregard during this time as to how they treated their people and most provocatively demonstrate it â€Å"In perhaps the novel’s cruelest scene, soldiers play upon a common taboo and allow an executed man’s blood to run into a village well, knowing that the communit y will be obliterated. (Rosen 94). Darnay continues to press his argument on his uncle about aristocracy’s abuses protesting that â€Å"Even in my father’s time we did a world of wrong, injuring every human creature who came between us and our pleasure whatever it was. † (Dickens 128). Darnay’s disagrees with how people utilize money and status to tyrannize those lower than them to achieve even their smallest goals. On a less violent note, some just refuse to recognize the problem with France’s people. Dickens demonstrates how the aristocracy ives the high life by showing how one â€Å"Monseigneur could swallow a great many things with ease, and was by some few sullen minds supposed to be rather rapidly swallowing France. † (Dickens 109). Upper-class citizens indulging in luxuries pay no mind to the poor around them who made up the great majority of the country. They have money to eat and â€Å"swallow† any food they pleased while oth ers scavenge daily for a possible dinner. Looking back at the history of events leading up to the Revolution, â€Å"There is, no doubt a great deal of truth in this view of the matter,† (Stephen 155).The hellacious government oppresses the people of France. Devastation did not rule France before the cruel wrath of the aristocracy reigned over. In Dickens’s book, he displays a scene of Mr. Lorry when he first meets Lucie Manette and â€Å"a sudden vivid likeness passed before him, of a child whom he had held in his arms on the passage across that very channel on cold time when the hail drifted heavily and the sea ran high. † (29). Lucie lost her family as a baby, her father to the Bastille and her mother to death, so Mr. Lorry takes her away from France to grow in England.Times have not yet reached the peak of pain; the people’s spirits run high with hope. Dickens uses sea imagery throughout the book to demonstrate the intersections between social classes who had believed themselves to live as parallels before. Now things have changed, â€Å"The centuries of aristocratic rule have left France a waste land. † (Rosen 93). Nothing in France lives anymore, death, depression, and oppression have left France desecrated. The French lose all hope as they prepare to storm the Bastille, â€Å"Every living creature there held life as of no account, and was demented with a passionate readiness to sacrifice it. (Dickens 221). No lone soul in the crowd troubles with what might become of them or those around them. The ability to reason a life threatening situation over survival has lost them and the mob prepares to lay their lives down. Oppression consumes the nation and even the corruption of friendship befalls them. Successful lawyer Mr. Stryver differs very much from his assistant and friend Sydney Carton in Dickens’s book. Stryver treats Carton as below him and conveys himself as, â€Å"dragging his useful friend in his wake, li ke a boat towed astern. (Dickens 211). Stryver uses Carton to accomplish his drive to excel socially, pulling Carton through the rough waves of upset that he creates. As a whole, the people of France find joy in watching the brutal executions of others hoping that it will satisfy the aristocracy’s thirst for blood. Oppression drives them to the point where trials rush and every sentence reaps death. In the event of Darnay’s trial, Dickens renders the justice system as, â€Å"the public current of the time set too strong and too fast for him. † (270).The jury and the spectators press for a quick trial ending in death. Darnay frets he will not get the chance to defend his self. This behavior is only a result of the government’s oppression, â€Å"While a great part of the novel is spent detailing the violence surrounding the storming of the Bastille and the beginnings of the Reign of Terror, the narrative is punctuated by reminders of the kind of violent ab uses that instigated this anger in the first place. † (Gonzalez-Posse 347). Terrors of the government send the people into frenzy; they want to take an eye for an eye.This only proves Dickens’s point, â€Å"that violence and oppression only lead to more of the same. † (Gonzalez-Posse 347). The evidence indicates that the government leaves the people of France with only one choice, to return the violent acts that have devastated them. When presented with a life threatening situation, human instinct leaves one with two choices; fight or flight. Threat of life though will usually end in strive for survival. The oppressed in Dickens's book choose to fight for their survival through violence.One critic discusses this choice, â€Å"there are two possible ways in which violence may be exorcised: first, as a spontaneous release from slavishness through self-regardless violence†¦ second, as a calculated retreat from self-abandonment toward the use of violence agains t others in an attempt to make one's transcendent liberation endure in the world. † (Kucich 101). The people have the ability to unleash themselves on the government without warning or organization. These instances would be each individual lash out at the government but they would not ensure freedom.Their second possible choice of violence brings rebellion in groups such as the storming of the Bastille where everyone gives up everything to achieve one common goal. Trouble arises for more than just the aristocracy though, â€Å"For both men, the Revolution is a tumultuous ‘sea' with spinning whirlpools. Innately violent Mother Nature replaces the civilized order† (Bloom 22). Hardships and trials arise for all social classes, confusion runs wild amongst the people brought on by nature making the Revolution inevitable. The crowd surrounding Monsieur Defarge compels him to fight during the torming of the Bastille, â€Å"So resistless was the force of the ocean bearin g on him,† (Dickens 251). The strength of passion in the mass of angry people around Defarge raises a feeling within him, mob mentality, to fight as well. Dickens uses the word â€Å"resistless† to illustrate that fighting back this feeling, the uncontrollable urge to do as those around him, cannot be done. Fighting as a unified group derives from the human instincts when oppressed, â€Å"It follows the Revolution’s progression as the downtrodden peasants unite to overthrow their oppressors,† (Gonzalez-Posse 345).Naturally, struggle for survival pushes one to destroy or vanquish whatever puts them at risk. The French peasants as a whole realize that this brute force presents itself as their only way to save themselves. Blood flows like small streams through the cobblestone streets in every violent scene of Dickens’s book. The government brings it on first when a cask of wine breaks in the streets and people are on their hands and knees lapping it up like dogs because they are so starved from poverty.A man writes â€Å"BLOOD† on the walls and the wine stains lips and hands as if it truly were. As the book progresses, the peasants bring out the bloodshed. In the beginning, Mr. Lorry takes a walk along the beach. While looking at the rocks and other things brought to the surface by the waves, now tumbling around, Dickens portrays it for his readers, â€Å"the sea did what it liked, and what it like was destruction. † (Dickens 27-28). Up until this point Dickens has not had enough time to make too many references to the people French as â€Å"the sea†.Instead of speaking of them directly he foreshadows the upcoming revolution about to strike and the devastation it will cause. After the scene where the cask splits, lamplighters illuminate the street with the dim glow of candles and here Dickens introduces, â€Å"Indeed they were at sea and the ship and crew were in peril of tempest. † (Dickens 39). The o ppressed hold up the aristocracy because, after all, there would be no upper-class without a lower-class to hold them up. Government can not exist without residents to govern.The word â€Å"peril† implies the imminent danger of a storm that cannot be avoided, the Revolution where peasants will rock and threaten the lives of those they uphold. Storms like the one Dickens predicts bring decease and ruin in the most upsetting of ways. Those who were once civilized humans are now raging, â€Å"When the mob turns homicidal, its impulse is plainly cannibalistic, with its victims often torn limb from limb. † (Rosen 95). Primitive aspects of human nature buried under years of manners from society’s rules break free from hiding places and unfold on the aristocracy and government of France.Dickens fast forwards his readers though time when the revolution has not yet ended, â€Å"-the firm earth shaken by the rushes of an angry ocean which had no ebb, but was always on th e flow, higher and higher to the terror and wonder of the beholders on the shore-† (Dickens 231). The Revolution has failed to die down. Instead it persistency in its action holds the attention of the aristocracy and government who have not so far suffered from it and now await its arrival. While the Revolution wares on, those participating in it see it unravel only in a moment.In the grindstone scene, peasants work hastily to sharpen their weapons, to a viewer, â€Å"All this was seen in the vision of a drowning man†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Dickens 260). The adrenaline rush from the fear of the killings about to take place clutters the mind making the processing of this moment all too quick. The minds of unstoppable revolutionaries are not thinking, just the primal instinct to attack. Psychology explains it as, â€Å"this yearning for the pure release of self-violence is identified as the ultimate form of desire for freedom,† (Kucich 101).The hellacious aggression exhibited by the oppressed people of France reflects the crimes done to them before. This natural passion once repressed does not break out with such hate until a desperate cause arises. Oppression leaves the people of France with two choices. Fighting confirms the only logical answer where as flight would have them run away to another oppressed county. Revolution supplies the only sufficient means of revenge, â€Å"The novel presents two sources of violence, the heartless and reckless disdain of the nobility and the base savagery of the rebelling masses responding to it. † (Gonzalez-Posse 347).The two way road here makes cruelty a give and take relationship between social classes. From the lower-class’s point of view, the only fair way for revenge has the aristocracy undergo the same level of pain as they do. Peasants suffer from starvation, disease, and death. While the lower-class does not have the ability to deprive the upper-class of their money and lavish riches, they can how ever cause a violent uproar in physical pain to meet the level of their own. So in essence, the Revolution lacks the unnecessary gore some believe it has, instead a reasonable reaction to the upper-class’s malice government and, â€Å"The people, says Mr.Dickens, in effect, had been degraded by long and gross misgovernment and acted like wild beasts in consequence. † (Stephen 155). The oppressed French justify their actions and choices because the government inflicts pain on them first. The carefree government, practically run by the aristocracy, can be called corrupt for their crimes against the people. Freedom must be obtained through violence and this â€Å"can arguably be said to be moved by laudable motives, such as a desire to overturn OPPRESSION and avenge or protect their loved ones. † (Gonzalez-Posse 347).Examples for justification of the lower-class’s choices come in high frequency in Dickens’s book. Talking of an upper-classman, visual a ppearances show just how different the two classes are, â€Å"his stockings, was as white as the tops of the waves that broke upon the neighboring beach, or the specs of sail that glinted in the sunlight far at sea. † (Dickens 27). To have enough money to be able to have garments as clean as Dickens describes them here has become unreal. Specifically, when around 97% of France’s population does not have money to buy daily bread.The sea imagery used here describes the small number of people who can afford to live this way. They come few and far between like droplets of water on a boat’s sail, or white caps of waves. Justice for the oppressed finds its way solitarily through violence making their choices for revolution feasible, â€Å"The liberating intentions behind the lower classes’ violence, however, are only a response to the repressive image of non-human freedom and the ‘represented’ violence that defined the power of the class of Monsei gneur. (Kucich 102). Upper-class, defined as having money, power, and influence, abuses of lower-classes and influences government to allow them to get away with it. Lower-class citizens require a violent revolution to gain freedom from their oppressors, without it they would be driven to ruin. The misgovernment of France leads to the oppression of its lower-class. Aristocracy abuses their power through violence and eventually pushes the lower-class into a position where they feel their lives threatened.Human instinct tells the oppressed that they must fight back in order to gain their safety and their freedom. The government’s violent oppression causes the Revolution, â€Å"Sow the same seed of rapacious license and oppression over again, and it will surely yield the same fruit according to its kind. † (Dickens 381). Dickens’s writes this book to warn England that if they continue to poorly govern their country as France does then they will inevitably have a re volution of their own on their hands.

Languages of Spain Other Than Spanish

Languages of Spain Other Than Spanish If you think that Spanish or Castilian is the language of Spain, youre only partly right. True, Spanish is the national language and the only language you can use if you want to be understood almost everywhere. But Spain also has three other officially recognized languages, and language use continues to be a hot political issue in parts of the country. In fact, about a fourth of the countrys residents use a tongue other than Spanish as their first language. Here is a brief look at them: Euskara (Basque) Euskara is easily the most unusual language of Spain - and an unusual language for Europe as well, since it doesnt fit in the Indo-European family of languages that includes Spanish as well as French, English and the other Romance and Germanic languages. Euskara is the language spoken by the Basque people, an ethnic group in Spain and France that has its own identity as well as separatist sentiments on both sides of the Franco-Spanish border. (Euskara has no legal recognition in France, where far fewer people speak it.) About 600,000 speak Euskara, sometimes known as Basque, as a first language. What makes Euskara linguistically interesting is that it has not been shown conclusively to be related to any other language. Some of its characteristics include three classes of quantity (single, plural and indefinite), numerous declinations, positional nouns, regular spelling, a relative lack of irregular verbs, no gender, and pluri-personal verbs (verbs that vary according to the sex of the person being spoken to). The fact that Euskara is an ergative language (a linguistic term involving cases of nouns and their relations to verbs) has caused some linguists to think that Euskara may have come from the Caucasus region, although the relationship with languages of that area hasnt been demonstrated. In any case, it is likely that Euskara, or least the language it developed from, has been in the area for thousands of years, and at one time it was spoken in a much larger region. The most common English word that comes from Euskara is silhouette, the French spelling of a Basque surname. The rare English word bilbo, a type of sword, is the Euskara word for Bilbao, a city on the western edge of Basque Country. And chaparral came to English by way of Spanish, which modified the Euskara word txapar, a thicket. The most common Spanish word that came from Euskara is izquierda, left. Euskara uses the Roman alphabet, including most letters that other European languages use, and the à ±. Most of the letters are pronounced roughly like they would be in Spanish. Catalan Catalan is spoken not only in Spain, but also in parts of Andorra (where it is the national language), France, and Sardinia in Italy. Barcelona is the largest city where Catalan is spoken. In written form, Catalan looks something like a cross between Spanish and French, although it is a major language in its own right and  may be more similar to Italian than it is to Spanish. Its alphabet is similar to that of English, although it also includes a Ç. Vowels can take both grave and acute accents (as in and , respectively). Conjugation is similar to Spanishs. About 4 million people use Catalan as a first language, with about that many also speaking it as a second language. The role of the the Catalan language has been a key issue in the Catalonian independence movement. In a series of plebiscites, Catalonians have generally supported independence from Spain, although in many cases opponents of independence boycotted the elections and the Spanish government has contested the legality of the votes. Galician Galician has strong similarities to Portuguese, especially in vocabulary and syntax. It developed along with Portuguese until the 14th century, when a split developed, largely for political reasons. For the native Galician speaker, Portuguese is about 85 percent intelligible. About 4 million people speak Galician, 3 million of them in Spain, the rest in Portugal with a few communities in Latin America. Miscellaneous Languages Scattered throughout Spain are a variety of smaller ethnic groups with their own languages, most of them Latin derivatives. Among them are Aragonese, Asturian, Calà ³, Valencian (usually considered a dialect of Catalan), Extremaduran, Gascon, and Occitan. Sample Vocabularies Euskara: kaixo (hello), eskerrik asko (thank you), bai (yes), ez (no), etxe (house), esnea (milk), bat (one), jatetxea (restaurant). Catalan: sà ­ (yes), si us plau (please), quà ¨ tal? (how are you?), cantar (to sing), cotxe (car), lhome (the man), llengua or llengo (language), mitjanit (midnight). Galician: polo (chicken), dà ­a (day), ovo (egg), amar (love), si (yes), nom (no), ola (hello), amigo/amiga (friend), cuarto de baà ±o or baà ±o (bathroom), comida (food).

Performance Appraisal Essays

Performance Appraisal Essays Performance Appraisal Essay Performance Appraisal Essay TRAINING PROJECT REPORT ON â€Å"To Analyze the Present PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL AT NTPC, ANTA† A Training Project Report Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Award of the PGDM Academic Session 2010-2011 SUMITTED BY- SUMITTED TO- NEHA GUPTA CHETNA MAM PGDM [HR] MAHARISHI ARVIND INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT, KOTA. Approved by AICTE, Ministry of HRD, Govt. of India) CERTIFICATE This is to certify that Ms Neha Gupta a student of PGDM III semester at Maharishi Arvind International Institute of Management has completed Training Project entitled â€Å"To analyze the present performance appraisal at NTPC†. This project has been completed after studying for one year in PGDM course and for partially fulfilling the requirements for award of PGDM. The Major Research Project has been conducted under the guidance of â€Å"Mrs. Chetna Mangal† of MAIIM and is as per norms. Director: Academic Guide: Dr. Payal Uppadhay Mrs. Chetna Mangal CERTIFICATE This is to certify that Ms. Neha Gupta student of PGDM III semester at Maharishi Arvind International Institute of Management has submitted Training Project Report entitled â€Å"To analyze the present performance appraisal at NTPC†. This project has been completed after studying for one year in PGDM course and for partially fulfilling the requirements for award of PGDM. The Training Project Report has been evaluated and viva-voce conducted by the undersigned panel of examiners. The project has been found satisfactory/unsatisfactory and is recommended/not recommended for acceptance. Prof. Prof. Internal Examiner External Examiner DECLARATION I hereby declared that the Research Project titled â€Å"PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEM IN NATIONAL THERMAL POWER COOPERATION LMTD ANTA [KOTA] an original work of mine carried out under the guidance of Mr. Ananth Jaganaath (Senior HR Officer) during my survey period. The project was spread over a period of 6 weeks i. e. 26-05-2011 to 07-07-2011 and was carried out for the same period. NEHA GUPTA MAIIM Kota (raj. ) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The Summer Internship at â€Å"NTPC, Anta† has been a Quantum leap in terms of practical apprehension understanding of management concepts, sincerity, diligence, and responsibility and above all self-confidence. In particular, I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude to â€Å"Ms. Ananth jagannath (Sn. HR officer) NTPC,Anta† who gave me the opportunity to do my summer training in NTPC,Anta without his facilitation and cooperation, this project would not be so fulfilling. I would like to take this opportunity to thank my project guide Mr. Ananth jagannath (senior hr officer) for his guidance and for keeping me on track through his expertise in the field of Human Resource. I am also grateful to respected Mr. Anil Gupta (Hr Officer) for their valuable guidance to me regarding my training. I am also very grateful to all of the employees of NTPC, Anta without their cooperation I think I would not be able to learn. At the onset, I would like to thank Mr. Payal Upadhay (Deputy Director, Maharishi Arvind International Institute of Management, Kota, and Rajasthan) for giving me the opportunity to gain vital insights into the corporate world. I would like to acknowledge Mrs. Chetna Mangal (project guide) the entire esteemed faculty at MAIIM (Mrs. Shilpa Sharma, Miss Gazal Yadav, Mrs. Anju Ghosh Mr. Rupesh Garg) Kota for providing me with the required theoretical background to approach the project. However, I accept the sole responsibility for any possible error of omission and would be extremely grateful to the readers of this project report if they bring such mistakes to my notice Neha Gupta Maharishi Arvind International Institute of Management Kota, Rajasthan PREFACE To survive, thrive beat the competition in today’s brutally competitive world one has to manage the future. Managing the future means managing information. What we learned in post graduate in business management classroom study is no doubt quite important for gaining theoretical knowledge, but practical training is equally important for student, who wants to provide himself with the real working environment in any field of study. Practical training provides an opportunity to the theoretical knowledge being applied in practice. Hence it acts as a bridge between the education and practical environment. This report is prepared to study the â€Å"Performance appraisal at NTPC, Anta, kota. In the present era it is becoming the backbone of every concern. Neha Gupta MAIIM Kota (raj. ) EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In my project, entitled-â€Å"To analyze the present performance appraisal system of National Thermal Power Corporation Ltd. , I have studied the present appraisal system of NTPC by analyzing the details of the appraisal system, articulate the organizational, functional, departmental individual objectives , factors in business dynamics to grade employees on objectives transparent productivity parameters, self appraisal followed by reporting officer higher authority’s assessment , link between rewards and performance to increase motivation level of employees , assessment of training developmental needs of the individuals and make them aware about the parameters used to evaluate their performance. In my own style, I have tried to find out whether the present appraisal system is effective enough to serve the purpose of performance appraisal i. e. to understand the needs of employees and provide them formal regular feedback related to their performance. For this purpose, I used questionnaires to get the opinions of employees at different levels. I also went through different books, websites and magazines to gather material related to the topic. After collecting the information, I analyzed the data and provide the necessary suggestions to improve the system. CONTENTS Title Page No. 1. Certificateii-iii 2. Decelerationiv 3. Acknowledgementv-vi 4. Preface vii 5. Executive Summary viii 6. Contents ix CHAPTER-I -COMPANY PROFILE * History 2 * About NTPC3 * Vision and Mission Statement 3 * About the company 4-8 * Organization structure of NTPC 9 CHAPTER-II-PROJECT PROFILE 10 * Conceptual framework 11-22 * Objectives of PA 23-24 * Procedure of PA 25-29 CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 30 * Research objective 31 * Research Methodology 32-33 * Data Collection Method 34 * SWOT Analysis 35-36 CHAPTERIV-DATA AND INTERPRETATION 37 Result and Discussion 38 * Interpretation –I 39 * Interpretation –II 40 * Interpretation –III 41 * Interpretation –IV 42 * Interpretation –V 43 * Interpretation –VI 44 * Interpretation –VII 45 * Interpretation –VIII 46 CHAPTERV-FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION 47 * Findings 48 * Limitations 49 CHAPTERVI-RECOMMENDATIONS 50 * Bibliography 51

More About Mission

More About Mission More About Mission More About Mission By Mark Nichol A recent post listed and defined many words containing the element mit and miss and descended from the Latin verb mittere, meaning â€Å"send.† This follow-up offers related words not as easily discerned as being part of the mittere family. But first, here are the details about a word integral to this vocabulary family but not discussed in the previous post: Mission, the word that often forms the root of the noun form of words in the mittere family, itself means â€Å"job† or â€Å"task† or sometimes refers to those sent to do a job or task. Because the practice of sending religious personnel to convert people or provide aid to them historically also had political and economic motivations, the term came to apply also to assignments of diplomatic personnel and trade representatives. Also from the religious sense, a complex of buildings constructed to support such work is called a mission. (A particular style of architecture and furniture inspired by buildings and furnishings for Catholic missions in North America is called â€Å"mission style.†) Someone engaged in mission work in a religious context is a missionary; that term is also employed as an adjective to describe someone very supportive of a cause or eager about a job; this fervor might be described as â€Å"missionary zeal.† Mass, describing a church service,† derives from Latin by way of the Old English term mà ¦sse, which refers to the church service known as the Eucharist; it likely stems from the priest’s concluding statement, â€Å"Missa est† (â€Å"It has been sent†). Religious documents and publications generally capitalize the term, while in lay usage it is usually lowercase. (The noun and verb mass, referring to a large amount or crowd, is unrelated.) A missal, meanwhile, is a book containing prayers said or sung at various times of year during masses. Mess in the dining sense, usually employed to describe a meal seating in a military context, comes from the notion of sending a meal to be eaten. The sense of â€Å"jumble† or â€Å"state of confusion or untidiness,† and the meaning, by extension, of â€Å"quantity† derives from the original sense applied to mixed food given to animals. A message is a communication (as a verb, the word means â€Å"communicate by message† or â€Å"send a communication†); it can also apply, more broadly, to an idea or theme. The near synonym missive refers specifically to a letter, while a missile is a weapon â€Å"sent† by projecting or throwing. The phrase mise-en-scà ¨ne, borrowed directly from French, literally means â€Å"setting on the stage† and is based on the French noun mise, â€Å"a placing or putting†; it refers to the physical arrangement of performers and scenery in a live or recorded dramatic presentation or, by extension, the context or setting of a narrative or the environment of a place in general. To dismiss is to disregard or send away; such an act is a dismissal. Demise is a formal synonym for death that also applies to the end of activity or existence or the loss of position or status, as well as conveying sovereignty or an estate; in the latter sense, it is used in legal contexts as a verb. (In the sense of â€Å"death,† such usage is rare.) A premise is an idea or statement accepted as true or the sake of argument or to discuss a reasoning; the word is also employed as a verb in that sense. In plural form, it has the specific formal meaning â€Å"buildings and the piece of land on which they are built.† (This usage stems from the fact that in legal documents, where such property was often described, premise was employed to mean â€Å"something previously stated.†) Surmise means â€Å"imagine† or â€Å"infer,† or refers to having a poorly supported idea or thought; such is also referred to as a surmise. A promise is a pledge or vow- one literally â€Å"sent forth†- or the action of pledging or vowing; the word also pertains to an expectation, as in â€Å"the promise of rain† or â€Å"showing promise.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Idioms About Numbers75 Synonyms for â€Å"Talk†Threw and Through